Nama : Martina Asti Riwi Hartanti
NPM : 15209774
Kelas : 4EA17



I. QUESTION TAGS

Rumus Question Tags
- Bila pernyataan positif Questin Tag negatif
- Bila pernyataan negatif Questin Tags positif

A. Kalimat-kalimat menggunakan to be ( am, are, is, was, were )
a. I am as fat as he, aren’t I ?
I am not as fat as he, am I ?

b. You are government officer, aren’t you ?
You are not government officer, are you ?

c. He is a doctor, isn’t he ?
He is not a doctor, is he ?

d. She was late this morning, wasn’t she ?
She was not late this morning, was she ?

e. They were here last night, weren’t they ?
They were not here last night, were they ?

B. Kalimat-kalimat dengan kata kerja ( verb) Question Tagnya menggunakan do, does, did sesuai dengan tense dari kalimat itu sendiri
a. Last night you spent the night at the hotel, didn’t you ?
Last night you didn’t spent the night at the hotel, did you ?

b. Johan and Mary went to they party together, didn’t they ?
Johan and Mary didn’t go to they party together, did they ?

c. I look pale, don’t I ?
I don’t look pale, do I?

d. She goes to school by bus, doesn’t she ?
She doesn’t go to school by bus, does she ?

f. The student like English, don’t they ?
The student don’t like English, do they ?


C. Kalimat-kalimat dengan auxiliaries ( can, may, must, will,, should, would, here, has, had ) Question Tagnya dibentuk dengan mengulangi kembali auxiliary tersebut .

a. You father can speak English Fluently, cann’ he ?
You father can not speak English Fluently, can he ?

b. We may go home now, mayn’t we ?
We may not go home now, may we ?

c. They will invite us , won’t they ?
They will not invite us , will they

d. He must study English , mustn’t he ?
He must not study English , must he ?

e. Children should obey their parent , shouldn’t they ?
Children shouldn’t obey their parent , should they ?

g. We ought to study harder, oughtn’t we ?
We ought not to study harder, ought we ?

h. Father has left, hasn’t he ?
Father hasn’t left, has he ?

i. They have been there many times, haven’t they ?
They haven’t been there many times, have they ?

j. She had better go there, hadn’t she ?
She had better not go there, had she ?

k. He would rather stay home, would n’t he ?
He wouldn’t rather stay home, would he ?



D. Untuk Idiomatic expression used to Question tag-nya dibentuk dengan did dan auxiliary have to / has to dibentuk dengan do, does.

a. He used to live here, didn’t he ?
He didn’t use to live here, did he ?

b. We have to practise our English, don’t we?
We don’t have to practise our English, do we?

c. He has to study grammar, doesn’t he ?
He doesn’t have to study grammar, does he ?

E. Untuk kalimat Imperative, Question Tag dibentuk dengan menggunakan will you dan shall we.
a. Stop the noise, will you ?
Come and see me tomorrow, will you ?

b. Let me have a look, will you ?
Let me read it for you, will you ?

c. Let’s go for a walk, shall we ?
Let’s go shopping, shall we ?

II. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE

Counditional Sentence terdiri dari bagian kalimat yaitu Induk kalimat ( Main Cllause ) dan anak kalimat ( Sub Clause ) dengan if ( = seandainya ) Dalam bahasa Inggris kalimat pengandaian dibagi dalam 3 type yaitu :

1. Future Possible ( kemungkinan di masa yang akan datang ) untuk type ini susunan kalimatnya adalah sebagi berikut :
- Induk Kalimat ( Main Clause ) - Simple Future Tense
- Anak Kalimat ( If Clause ) - Simple Present Tense

a. If you study hard, you will pass the examination
b. If the weather is fine tomorrow, we will go for a picnic.
c. If I go to England, I will visit Buckingham palace
d. I will a car if I have much money
e. He will tell you if he knows the answer.


Unless – if not ( = jika tidak )

Unless digunakan untuk menggantiikan If not
a. If you don’t take an umbrella. You will get wet.
Unless you take an umbrella. You will get wet
b. If you don’t study hard, you won’t pass the examination
Unless you study hard, you won’t pass the examination
c. If it doesn’t rain tomorrow, I will go for a swim.
Unless it rains tomorrow, I will go for a swim.
d. No one will come to the door if he doesn’ ring the bell
No one will come to the door unless he rings the bell
e. We will be late if we don’t leave now
We will be late unless we leave now

2. Present Unreal ( berlawanan dengan kenyataan sekarang ) untuk type ini sususnan kalimatnya adalah sebagai berikut :
Digunakan untuk menytakan suatu keadaan yang berbeda/berlawanan dengan kenyataan dimasa sekarang. Susunan kalimatnya sebagai berikut
a. Induk Kalimat ( Main Clause ) - Past Future Tense )
b. Anak Kalimat ( If Clause ) - Simple Past Tense
a. If you studied hard, you would pass the examination
( You don’t study hard )
b. If I had a car, I would take a trip to Bali.
( I don’t have a car )
c. If my father knew how to drive. He would buy a car.
( My Father doesn’t know to drive )
d. I would eat Japanese food if I live in Japan.
( I don’t live in Japan ).
e. He would buy a new house if he had much money
f. ( He doesn’t have much money )

Jika anak kalimat ( if clause ) dinyatakan dengan to be, maka kita menggunakan were untuk kesemua subject ( I were , You were, He were etc. )

a. If I were the moon, you would be the star.
b. If I were a bird, I would flay all over the world.
c. If he were not busy this time, he would help you

3. Past Unreal ( berlawanan dengan kenyataan masa lampau ) untuk type ini sususnan kalimatnya adalah sebagai berikut :
a. Induk Kalimat ( Main Clause ) - Past Future Prefect Tense
b. Anak Kalimat ( If Clause ) - Past Perfect Tense.

a. If he had gone to the concert last night, he would have seen Mary.
( He didn’t go to the concert )
b. If I had seen you yesterday, I would have told you about it.
( I didn’t see you yesterday ).
c. If the weather had been fine yesterday, we would have gone for a swim.
( The weather was bad yesterday )
d. If you had told her the truth, she wouldn’t have been angry.
( You didn’t tell her the truth )
e. If I had receive you message, I would have come at once
( I didn’t receive you message )


III. So and Such
So ditempatkan setelah adjective (kata sifat), adverb (kata keterangan), atau noun phrase yang diawali dengan determiner many, much, few, dan little.

a. She swims so beautifully.
b. They are so creative and active.
c. I want to share so many stories.
d. The rain was so heavy.
e. The little girl was crying so loudly.
f. The boys were so noisy we had to shut the door.
g. Lance was very interested in art so he visited the art gallery.
h. The weather was so wonderful.
i. I'm so excited that you are getting married.
j. There was a lot of free time left so I took a tour of the city.

Such diikuti oleh singular noun dengan artikel a atau plural noun.
a. They discussed such a hot issue.
b. The man carried such heavy suitcases.
c. That was such an amazing car.
d. Ratna is such a smart girl.
e. The new product was such a success.
f. It was such a rainy day, I took an umbrella.
g. He is such a good dancer.
h. It was such a stupid question he refused to answer.
i. She's such a gorgeous girl.
j. It is such an expensive car.
IV. Adjective and Adverb

Adjective adalah kata sifat yang menerangkan kata benda (nouns) atau kata ganti (pronouns). Adjectives dapat diletakkan sebelum kata benda atau setelah kata kerja tertentu.

a. She is a beautiful girl.
b. This clock is Switzerland.
c. Jack is a diligent man.
d. This is a true story.
e. She has red hair
f. This is a very long film.
g. I’d like to buy a set of wooden chair.
h. Arrange the sticks in triangle.
i. She pushed the window open.
j. I have got a new book.

Adverb adalah kata yang menerangkan kata kerja, kata sifat, adverbs yang lain atau seluruh kalimat.
a. John arrived early.
b. She dances extremely well.
c. He worked too hard yesterday.
d. The plane is playing low.
e. He speaks German fluently.
f. The water flows continuously.
g. He left the hotel hurriedly.
h. He closed the door gently.
i. She is too young to get married.
j. The garden is very large.

V. Yes and No Question
Yes-No question adalah pertanyaan yang membutuhkan jawaban yes (ya) atau no (tidak).
a. Are you a student? Yes, I am. No, I am not
b. Is she a doctor? Yes, she is. No, she isn not/isn’t
c. Does he go to the post office? Yes, He does. No he doesn’t
d. Do they play football? Yes, they do. No, They don’t
e. Was it cute? Yes, it was. No, it wasn’t
f. Were you disappointed yesterday? Yes, I was. No, I wasn’t
g. Did he eat the apple? Yes, he did. No, he didn’t
h. Have you got the ticket? Yes, I have. No, I haven’t
i. Shall we go to the swimmingpool tomorrow? Yes, we shall. No we shall not.
j. Will father drive the car? Yes, he will. No he will not(won’t)
k. Should I go alone? Yes, you should. No, You shouldn’t.
l. Can you sing a song? Yes, I can. No, I can’t
m. May I borrow your money? Yes you may. No you may not

VI. A Few and Few
A few digunakan untuk menunjukkan benda yang bisa dihitung (countable noun) untuk menunjukkan kuantitas yang sedikit dan biasanya digunakan dalam kalimat positif.
a. There is a few books in the bookcase.
b. I have a few books.
c. She has a few friends in the city.
d. I have a few used cloth for the beggar.
e. Have you a few dollars to be borrowed to me?
f. She has been here only two weeks, but she has already made a few friends.
g. A few (of the) paintings in this gallery are really good.
h. There are a few biscuits in the tin.
i. A few customers have come into the shop, It has been quite busy.
j. My bus goes in a few minutes.

Few digunakan dengan kata benda yang dapat dihitung untuk menunjukkan kuantitas yang lebih sedikit dari a few dan biasanya digunakan dalam kalimat negatif.
a. I am sad here as I have few friends.
b. Few Englishmen speak Spanish.
c. There are very few good restaurants in this town.
d. There are very few apples on the table.
e. There are very few chairs in the room.
f. He has a few flowers in his garden.
g. Very few people go to the island.
h. The tree has only a few leaves.
i. Mother bought a few potatoes.
j. Very few of them understand him.

VII. Little and a Little

Little digunakan dengan kata benda yang tak dapat dihitung untuk menunjukkan kuantitas yang lebih sedikit dari a little dan biasanya digunakan dalam kalimat negatif.
a. I have little money.
b. She doesn’t want to go out as she has little money.
c. Very little rain falls in the Sahara.
d. There is very little ink in this pen.
e. Fate gave him little happiness.
f. He spends very little money.
g. She has so little time to hang out with her friends even in holiday.
h. There is only little water left in the kettle.
i. She has little for breakfast.
j. I drink little coffee.

A little untuk benda yang tak bisa dihitung (uncountable noun) untuk menunjukkan kuantitas yang sedikit dan biasanya digunakan dalam kalimat positif.
a. We need a little salt for the dish.
b. I have a little of sugar to your tea.
c. You have a little of water.
d. You have a little of flour.
e. I have a little drink.
f. There is a little sugar in the bowl.
g. There is a little milk in the bottle.
h. They have only a little food.
i. He drinks a little coffee
j. Listen carefully, I’ve a little information about him to you.

VIII. Because and Because of
Because digunakan sebelum kalimat yang terdapat subjek dan kata kerja (jika berupa kalimat verbal) atau kata bantu (jika berupa kalimat nominal).
a. They pass the exam because they study hard.
b. John loves the cat because it is funny.
c. We decided to stay at home because the weather was bad.
d. She was absent from class because her cold was worse.
e. He blushed because he knew he had been caught out.
f. Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.
g. I study English because I want a good job.
h. I eat a lot of pizza because I like it.
i. Jane was worried because it had started to rain.
j. The students arrived late because there was a traffic jam

Because of digunakan sebelum kata benda (noun), kata ganti milik (possessive pronoun) atau gerund (kata kerja+ing).
a. She is here because of the invitation.
b. Faqih wins the competition because of his intelligence.
c. He has a cough because of smoking.
d. We decided to stay at home because of the weather.
e. She was absent from class because of her cold.
f. We didn’t go to the beach because of the weather.
g. I lost my appetite because of a stomachache.
h. Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.
i. Because of you, I got an accident.
j. Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.

IX. Enought

Dapat berlaku sebagai kata sifat atau kata ganti yang digunakan bersama kata benda jamak yang dapat dihitung atau yang tak dapat dihitung.
1. Is that enough
2. There is enough bread for breakfast
3. She has enough flour to make a cake
4. I’ve heard more than enough of the music
5. That girl is clever enough
6. This dress is warm enough to wear
7. This orange is sweet enough to eat
8. Danny is old enough to go to school
9. They sleep enough
10. James reads enough

ENGLISH TASK

ENGLISH TASK
CAN
1. ( + ) My father can speak French perfectly.
( - ) My father can‘t speak French perfectly.
( ? ) Can you father speak French perfectly ?

2. ( + ) I can swim several miles without getting tired.
( - ) I can ‘t swim several miles without getting tired.
( ? ) Can you swim several miles without getting tired ?

3. ( + ) He can finish that work on time.
( - ) He can ‘t finish that work on time.
( - ) Can he finish that work on time ?

4. ( + ) The boy can lift the heavy box himself.
( - ) The boy can ‘t lift the heavy box himself.
( ? ) Can the boy lift the heavy box himself ?

5. ( + ) Mary can play piano well.
( - ) The boy can lift the heavy box himself.
( ? ) Can the boy can lift the heavy box himself ?

MAY

1. ( + ) You may come to my house anytime you like.
( - ) You may not come to my house anytime you like.
( ? ) May I come to my house anytime you like ?

2. ( + ) You may stay here with us any longer.
( - ) You may not stay here with us any longer.
( ? ) May I stay here with us any longer ?

3. ( + ) They may keep the books for week.
( - ) They may not keep the books for week.
( ? ) May they keep the books for week ?

4. ( + ) We may go together with them tonight.
( - ) We may not go together with them tonight.
( ? ) May we go together with them tonight ?

5. ( + ) She may leave the office early.
( - ) She may not leave the office early.
( ? ) May she leave the office early ?

MUST

1. ( + ) They must finish the work on time.
( - ) They need not finish the work on time.
( ? ) Must they finish the work on time ?

2. ( + ) You must answer the letter at once.
( - ) You need not answer the letter at once.
( ? ) Must you answer the letter at once ?

3. ( + ) He must leave before dinner
( - ) He need not leave before dinner
( ? ) Must he leave before dinner ?

4. ( + ) You must study harder in order to pass examination
( - ) You need not study harder in order to pass examination
( ? ) Must you study harder in order to pass examination ?

5. ( + ) We must get there before eight
( - ) We need not get there before eight
( ? ) Must we get there before eight ?

MIGHT
1. ( + ) He might be very tired.
( - ) He might not be very tired.
( ? ) Might he be very tired ?

2. ( + ) The machine might be operated now.
( - ) The machine might not be operated now.
( ? ) Might The machine be operated now ?

3. ( + ) He might be sick today.
( - ) He might not be sick today.
( ? ) Might he be sick today ?

4. ( + ) Mother might cook soup today.
( - ) Mother might not cook soup today.
( ? ) Might mother cook soup today ?

5. ( + ) It might be a hot day today.
( - ) It might not be a hot day today.
( ? ) Might It be a hot day today ?
SHOULD
1. ( + ) He should spend more time on his English.
( - ) He shouldn’t spend more time on his English.
( ? ) Should he spend more time on his English ?

2. ( + ) You should ask permission before doing it.
( - ) You shouldn’t ask permission before doing it.
( ? ) Should you ask permission before doing it ?

3. ( + ) Your father should go to the doctor at once.
( - ) Your father shouldn’t go to the doctor at once.
( ? ) Should Your father go to the doctor at once ?

4. ( + ) They should make so much noise.
( - ) They should n’t make so much noise.
( ? ) Should they make so much noise ?

5. ( + ) John should smoke so much.
( - ) John shouldn’t smoke so much.
( ? ) Should John smoke so much ?

COULD
1. ( + ) This problem could be fixed by us
( - ) This problem couldn’t be fixed by us
( ? ) Could this problem be fixed by us ?
2. ( + ) Mary could sing a song when she was young.
( - ) Mary couldn’t sing a song when she was young.
( ? ) Could Mary sing a song when she was young ?

3. ( + ) She could come here yesterday because she was ill.
( - ) She could not come here yesterday because she was ill.
( ? ) Could she come here yesterday because she was ill ?

4. ( + ) She could be at home now, but she usually plays volleyball.
( - ) She couldn’t be at home now, but she usually plays volleyball.
( ? ) Could she be at home now, but she usually plays volleyball ?

5. ( + ) He could be very busy at that time.
( - ) He couldn’t be very busy at that time.
( ? ) Could he be very busy at that time ?

ALTHOUGH
1. ( + ) He walks to school although he has a bike
( - ) He doesn’t walk to school although he has a bike
( ? ) Does he walk to school although he has a bike ?

2. ( + ) We enjoyed our picnic although it rained all day.
( - ) We didn’t enjoy our picnic although it rained all day.
( ? ) Did we enjoy our picnic although it rained all day ?

3. ( + ) Although she studied very hard, she manage to pass the exam.
( - ) Although she didn’t study very hard, she manage to pass the exam.
( ? ) Did she study very hard although she manage to pass the exam ?

4. ( + ) The picnic was great although the service was very nice.
( - ) The picnic wasn’t great although the service was very nice.
( ? ) Did the picnic was great although the service very nice ?

5. ( + ) I went swimming although it's cold.
( - ) I didn’t swimming although it's cold.
( ? ) Did I go swimming although it's cold ?


HAD BETTER
1. ( + ) You’d better tell her everything.
( - ) Better you had not tell her everything.
( ? ) Have you better tell her everything

2. ( + ) I’d better get back to work.
( - ) I’d better not get back to work.
( ? ) Have I better get back to work ?

3. ( + ) We’d better meet early.
( - ) We’d better not meet early.
( ? ) Have We better meet early?


4. ( + ) We’d better miss the start of his presentation.
( - ) We’d better not miss the start of his presentation.
( ? ) Have we better miss the start of his presentation ?

5. ( + ) You had better see the doctor
( - ) You had better not see the doctor
( ? ) Have you had better see the doctor ?

HAVE TO
1. ( + ) We have to go now.
( - ) We have not to go now.
( ? ) Do we have to go now ?

2. ( + ) I have to keep the fruits in the fridge.
( - ) I have not to keep the fruits in the fridge.
( ? ) Do I have to keep the fruits in the fridge ?

3. ( + ) Tom does have to make the report.
( - ) Tom does not have to make the report.
( ? ) Does Tom have to make the report ?

4. ( + ) They have to read the book
( - ) They don’t have to read the book
( ? ) Do they have to read the book?

5. ( + ) I'm looking for Nicole. I have to talk to her about our launch date tomorrow.
( - ) I'm not looking for Nicole. I have not to talk to her about our launch date tomorrow.
( ? ) Am I looking for Nicole. Do I have to talk to her about our launch date tomorrow ?

HAVE GOT TO
1. ( + ) I have got to go now. I have a class in ten minutes.
( - ) I have not got to go now. I have no a class in ten minutes.
( ? ) Have I got to go now. I have a class in ten minutes ?

2. ( + ) I have got to leave now
( - ) I have not got to leave now
( ? ) Have I got to leave now ?

3. ( + ) We've got to be at the airport very early tomorrow.
( - ) We've not got to be at the airport very early tomorrow.
( ? ) Have we've got to be at the airport very early tomorrow ?

4. ( + ) Well, I've got to go now. Thank for having been with me.
( - ) Well, I've not got to go now. Thank for having been with me.
( ? ) Have we will got to go now. Thank for having been with me ?

5. ( + ) Mr. Sunaryono, you've got to see the boss now. He's waiting for you.
( - ) Mr. Sunaryono, you've not got to see the boss now. He's waiting for you.
( ? ) Mr. Sunaryono, do you've got to see the boss now. He's waiting for you ?
PREFER
1. ( + ) I prefer riding a motorcycle to driving a car.
( - ) I prefer not riding a motorcycle to driving a car.
( ? ) Do I prefer riding a motorcycle to driving a car ?
2. ( + ) We prefer this new building to the old one.
( - ) We don’t prefer this new building to the old one.
( ? ) Do we prefer this new building to the old one ?

3. ( + ) She prefers singing to dancing.
( - ) She doesn’t prefer singing to dancing.
( ? ) Does she prefer singing to dancing ?

4. ( + ) Andy prefers doing his hobby to watching TV all day.
( - ) Andy doesn’t prefer doing his hobby to watching TV all day.
( ? ) Does Andy prefer doing his hobby to watching TV all day ?

5. ( + ) My mother prefers lemon to orange juice.
( - ) My mother does prefer lemon to orange juice.
( ? ) Does my mother prefer lemon to orange juice ?

LIKE ….. BETTER THAN
1. ( + ) Some people like doing sport better than staying at home on Sunday morning.
( - ) Some people don’t like doing sport better than staying at home on Sunday
Morning.
( ? ) Do some people like doing sport better than staying at home on Sunday morning ?
2. ( + ) My friends like English better than Math.
( - ) My friends don’t like English better than Math.
( ? ) Do my friends like English better than Math ?

3. ( + ) His brother likes operating computer better than doing his homework.
( - ) His brother doesn’t like operating computer better than doing his homework.
( ? ) Does his brother likes operating computer better than doing his homework ?

4. ( + ) He likes basketball batter than football.
( - ) He doesn’t like basketball batter than football.
( ? ) Does he likes basketball batter than football ?

5. ( + ) I like singing a song better than playing a guitar.
( - ) I don’t like singing a song better than playing a guitar.
( ? ) Do I like singing a song better than playing a guitar ?

WOULD RATHER

1. ( + ) They would rather take the chance than ignore it.
( - ) They would not rather take the chance than ignore it.
( ? ) Would they rather take the chance than ignore it ?

2. ( + ) I would rather save the money than spend it.
( - ) I would not rather save the money than spend it.
( ? ) Would I rather save the money than spend it ?

3. ( + ) Rudy would rather phone me than sends SMS.
( - ) Rudy would not rather phone me than sends SMS.
( ? ) Does Rudy would rather phone me than sends SMS ?

4. ( + ) He would rather leave than stays in this room.
( - ) He would not rather leave than stays in this room.
( ? ) Would he rather leave than stays in this room ?

5. ( + ) She would rather stay home than go shopping.
( - ) She would not rather stay home than go shopping.
( ? ) Does she would rather stay home than go shopping ?

WOULD

1. ( + ) I would her join me to the party.
( - ) I would she not join the party.
( ? ) Would she join the party ?

2. ( + ) I would like a cup of coffee, please.
( - ) I would not like a cup of coffee.
( ? ) Would you like a cup of coffee ?

3. ( + ) I like to come with you.
( - ) I would not like to come with you.
( ? ) Would you like to come with me ?

4. ( + ) Would you please stand up.
( - ) You would not stand up please.
( ? ) Would you stand up please ?

5. ( + ) She would like to be professional footballer
( - ) She would not like to be professioanal footballer.
( ? ) Would she like to be professional footballer ?

Countable Noun
SINGULAR PURAL

box boxes
punch punches
dash dashes
loss losses
country countries
wife wives
book books
fish fish
person people
foot feet
man man






UNCOUNTABLE NOUN


coffee, milk, oil, honey
grain, sugar, rice, flour, salt
concrete, iron, wood, glass, sand, gold, air, water, oxygen, fog
furniture, flooring, bedding, electricity
Indonesia, English, mandarin, Arabic
thunder, weather, lightning, rain, snow, wind
travel, information, money, equipment, luggage
work, knowledge, research, progress, intelligence, loyalty
happiness, tolerance, independence, love, an

A. Present Continuous Tense

Positive : Subject + am / is / are + Verb-ing

Negative : Subject + am / is / are + not + Verb-ing Form

Interrogative : am / is / are + Subject + Verb-ing Form

1. ( + ) The children are watching television
( - ) The children aren’t watching television
( ? ) Are the children watching television?

2. ( + ) Father is reading a newspaper
( - ) Father isn’t reading a newspaper
( ? ) Is father reading a newspaper?

3. ( + ) I am writing a letter for a friend
( - ) I am not writing a letter for friend
( ? ) Are you writing a letter for a friend?

4. ( + ) Jane is talking with mother
( - ) Jane isn’t talking with mother
( ? ) Is Jane talking with mother?

5. ( + ) My sister is cleaning the room
( - ) My sister isn’t cleaning the room
( ? ) Is my sister cleaning the room?

6. ( + ) John is doing anything now
( - ) John isn’t doing anything now
( ? ) Is John doing anything now?

7. ( + ) They are playing tennis at this moment
( - ) They aren’t playing tennis at this moment
( ? ) Are they playing tennis at this moment?

8. ( + ) The student are studying their lesson now
( - ) The student aren’t studying their lesson now
( ? ) Are the student studying their lesson now?

9. ( + ) The baby is sleeping
( - ) The baby isn’t sleeping
( ? ) Is the baby sleeping?

10. ( + ) Mother is cooking at this moment
( - ) Mother isn’t cooking at this moment
( ? ) Is mother cooking at this moment?



B. Present Tense

Positive : Subject + Verb I

Negative : Subject + do / does + Verb I

Interrogative : do / does + Subject + Verb I

1. ( + ) My father goes to work every day
( - ) My father doesn’t go to work every day
( ? ) Does my father go to work every day?

2. ( + ) We study English twice a week
( - ) We don’t study English twice a week
( ? ) Do we study English twice a week?

3. ( + ) They go abroad every year
( - ) They don’t go abroad every year
( ? ) Do they go abroad every year?

4. ( + ) The sun shines during the day
( - ) The sun doesn’t shine during the day
( ? ) Does the sun shine during the day?

5. ( + ) The earth moves round the sun
( - ) The earth doesn’t moves round the sun
( ? ) Does the earth moves round the sun?

6. ( + ) The bus carries a lot of passengers
( - ) The bus doesn’t carry a lot of passengers
( ? ) Does the bus carry a lot of passengers?

7. ( + ) Miss Arsanti teaches English in our class
( - ) Miss Arsanti doesn’t teach English in our class
( ? ) Does Miss Arsanti teach English in our class?

8. ( + ) The mother kisses both boys every morning
( - ) The mother doesn’t kiss both boys every morning
( ? ) Does the mother kiss both boys every morning?

9. ( + ) My father plays tennis twice a week
( - ) My father doesn’t play tennis twice a week
( ? ) Does your father play tennis twice a week?

10. ( + ) Shinta plays table tennis every week
( - ) Shinta doesn’t play table tennis every week
( ? ) Does Shinta play table tennis every week?



C. Past Tense

Positive : Subject + Verb 2

Negative : Subject + did not + Verb I

Interrogative : did + Subject + Verb I

1. ( + ) My uncle went to Bogor yesterday
( - ) My uncle didn’t go to Bogor yesterday
( ? ) Did you uncle go to Bogor yesterday?

2. ( + ) Last month my father left for Singapore
( - ) Last month my father didn’t live for Singapore
( ? ) Did my father live for Singapore last month?

3. ( + ) Last week I visited some friends
( - ) Last week I didn’t visite some friends
( ? ) Did you visite some friends last week?

4. ( + ) We watched television last night
( - ) We didn’t watch television last night
( ? ) Did we watch television last night?

5. ( + ) His father passed away two years ago
( - ) His father didn’t pass away two years ago
( ? ) Did his father pass away two years ago?

6. ( + ) John went go to school yesterday
( - ) John did not go to school yesterday
( ? ) Did John go to school yesterday?

7. ( + ) She felt much better after her operation last week
( - ) She didn’t feel much better after her operation last week
( ? ) Did she feel much better after her operation last week?

8. ( + ) Last year my sister passed her final examination
( - ) Last year my sister didn’t pass her final examination
( ? ) Did you sister pass her final examination last year?

9. ( + ) I saw him at the meeting last night
( - ) I didn’t see him at the meeting last night
( ? ) Did you see him at the meeting last night?

10. ( + ) I received any letter last monday
( - ) I didn’t receive any letter last monday
( ? ) Did you receive any letter last monday?



D. Past Continuous Tense

Positive : S + was / were + Verb-ing Form

Negative : S + was / were not + Verb-ing Form

Interrogative : was / were + Verb-ing Form

1. ( + ) When we were watching TV last night, the light want out
( - ) When we weren’t watching TV last night, the light want out
( ? ) Were we watching TV last night, the light want out?

2. ( + ) I was sleeping when you phoned me last night
( - ) I wasn’t sleeping when you phoned me last night
( ? ) Was I sleeping when you phoned me last night?

3. ( + ) Marry was playing piano when I arrived
( - ) Marry wasn’t playing piano when I arrived
( ? ) Was Marry playing piano when I arrived?

4. ( + ) While I was having breakfast, the telephone rung
( - ) While I wasn’t having breakfast, the telephone rung
( ? ) Was while you having breakfast, the telephone rung?

5. ( + ) Last night while we were having dinner, my sister was doing her homework
( - ) Last night while we weren’t having dinner, my sister was doing her homework
( ? ) Were while we having dinner last night, my sister was doing her homework?

6. ( + ) She was doing anything when you come to her house last night
( - ) She wasn’t doing anything when you come to her house last night
( ? ) Was she doing anything when you come to her house last night?

7. ( + ) I was going to some where when come to my house yesterday
( - ) I wasn’t going to some where when come to my house yesterday
( ? ) Were you going to some where when come to my house yesterday?

8. ( + ) My sister was doing anything when John arrived last night
( - ) My sister wasn’t doing anything when John arrived last night
( ? ) Were you sister doing anything when John arrived last night?

9. ( + ) I was playing football when Ali come to my house yesterday
( - ) I wasn’t playing football when Ali come to my house yesterday
( ? ) Were you playing football when Ali come to my house yesterday?

10. ( + ) They were roasting corn at this time last night
( - ) They weren’t roasting corn at this time last night
( ? ) Were they roasting corn at this time last night?



E. Present Perfect Tense

Positive : S + have / has + Verb 3

Negative : S + have / has not + Verb 3

Interrogative : have / has + S + Verb 3

1. ( + ) I have read that novel
( - ) I haven’t read that novel
( ? ) Have you read that novel?

2. ( + ) Father has gone to work.
( - ) Father hasn’t gone to work.
( ? ) Has father gone to work?

3. ( + ) The student have finished their exercises
( - ) The student haven’t finished their exercises
( ? ) Have the student finished their exercises?

4. ( + ) We have told John what you said
( - ) We haven’t told John what you said
( ? ) Have John told you said?

5. ( + ) She has returned that book to the library
( - ) She hasn’t returned that book to the library
( ? ) Has she returned that book to the library?

6. ( + ) She has studied English
( - ) She hasn’t studied English
( ? ) Has she studied English?

7. ( + ) Mrs Smith has tought
( - ) Mrs Smith hasn’t tought
( ? ) Has Mrs Smith tought?

8. ( + ) We have had dinner yet
( - ) We haven’t had dinner yet
( ? ) Have we had dinner yet?

9. ( + ) I have seen that film
( - ) I haven’t seen that film
( ? ) Have you seen that film?

10. ( + ) They have phoned me
( - ) They haven’t phoned me
( ? ) Have they phoned me?



F. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Positive : S + have / has been + Verb-ing Form

Negative : S + have / has been not + Verb-ing Form

Interrogative : have / has been + Verb-ing Form

1. ( + ) I have been living here for seven years
( - ) I have not been living here for seven years
( ? ) Have you been living here for seven years?

2. ( + ) She has been waiting for John since early in the morning
( - ) She has not been waiting for John since early in the morning
( ? ) Has she been waiting for John since early in the morning?

3. ( + ) Marry has been studying French for the years
( - ) Marry has not been studying French for the years
( ? ) Has Marry been studying French for the years?

4. ( + ) I have been working with my computer all day and now I want some delicious foods
( - ) I haven’t been working with my computer all day and now I want some delicious foods
( ? ) Have you been working with my computer all day and now I want some delicious foods?

5. ( + ) They have been waiting the lawyer for three hours
( - ) They have not been waiting the lawyer for three hours
( ? ) Have they been waiting the lawyer for three hours?

6. ( + ) He has been playing a kite for days
( - ) He has not been playing a kite for days
( ? ) Has he been playing a kite for days?

7. ( + ) Ida and Susi have been studying for two hours
( - ) Ida and Susi have not been studying for two hours
( ? ) Have Ida and Susi been studying for two hours?

8. ( + ) I have been staying in Jakarta for seven month
( - ) I have not been staying in Jakarta for seven month
( ? ) Have you been staying in Jakarta for seven month?

9. ( + ) They have been discussing the matter all day long
( - ) They have not been discussing the matter all day long
( ? ) How long have they been discussing the matter all day long?

10. ( + ) The nurses have been finishing their jobs
( - ) The nurses have not been finishing their jobs
( ? ) Have the nurses been finishing their jobs?

G. Future Continuous Tense

Positive : S + shall / will be + Verb-ing Form

Negative : S + shall / will not be + Verb-ing Form

Interrogative : shall / will + S + be + Verb-ing Form

1. ( + ) When you come tomorrow I shall be studying English
( - ) When you come tomorrow I shalln’t be studying English
( ? ) Shall you be studying English when I come tomorrow?

2. ( + ) If you come at noon we will be eating lunch
( - ) If you come at noon we willn’t be eating lunch
( ? ) Will we be eating lunch if you come at noon?

3. ( + ) By this time tomorrow I shall be watching football match
( - ) By this time tomorrow I shalln’t be watching football match
( ? ) Shall you be watching football match by this time tomorrow?

4. ( + ) At this time next month we will be travelling in Bali
( - ) At this time next month we willn’t be travelling in Bali
( ? ) Will we be travelling in Bali at this time next month?

5. ( + ) By the end of this month they will be climbing mountain
( - ) By the end of this month they willn’t be climbing mountain
( ? ) Will they be climbing mountain by the end of this month?

6. ( + ) I am leaving for Singapore tonight
( - ) I amn’t leaving for Singapore tonight
( ? ) Are you leaving for Singapore tonight?

7. ( + ) My sister is talking her final examination next August
( - ) My sister isn’t talking her final examination next August
( ? ) Is your sister talking her final examination next August?

8. ( + ) Tom is calling her at 7 p.m tomorrow
( - ) Tom isn’t calling her at 7 p.m tomorrow
( ? ) Is Tom calling her at 7 p.m tomorrow?

9. ( + ) I am meeting her tonight
( - ) I amn’t meeting her tonight
( ? ) Are you meeting her tonight?

10. ( + ) They are coming to visit us next weekend
( - ) They aren’t coming to visit us next weekend
( ? ) Are they coming to visit us next weekend?



H. Past Perfect Tense

Positive : S + had + Verb 3 / past participle

Negative : S + had + not + Verb 3

Interrogative : had + S + be + Verb 3

1. ( + ) I had gone to work when my friend come
( - ) I hadn’t gone to work when my friend come
( ? ) Had you gone to work when my friend come?

2. ( + ) She had finished her jobs when her husband arrived
( - ) She hadn’t finished her jobs when her husband arrived
( ? ) Had she finished her jobs when her husband arrived?

3. ( + ) We had done all of our responsibility
( - ) We hadn’t done all of our responsibility
( ? ) Had we done all of our responsibility?

4. ( + ) They had eaten dinner when you got home last night
( - ) They hadn’t eaten dinner when you got home last night
( ? ) Had they eaten dinner when you got home last night?

5. ( + ) He had passed away because of this sickness
( - ) He hadn’t passed away because of this sickness
( ? ) Had he passed away because of this sickness?

6. ( + ) I had listen the radio when you come here
( - ) I hadn’t listen the radio when you come here
( ? ) Had you listen the radio when I come here?

7. ( + ) They had been here
( - ) They hadn’t been here
( ? ) Had they been here?

8. ( + ) She had arrived here
( - ) She hadn’t arrived here
( ? ) Had she arrived here?

9. ( + ) The student had gotten a verbal warning before his parents were called
( - ) The student hadn’t gotten a verbal warning before his parents were called
( ? ) Had the student gotten a verbal warning before his parents were called?

10. ( + ) I had read the book three times
( - ) I hadn’t read the book three times
( ? ) Had I read the book three times?



Artikel a, an, the ( Jini Stone )

1. My name is Jini Stone. Yesterday afternoon I left the house at about three o’clock in the afternoon
2. I went to see a friend of mine
3. Mancy Smith was in the hospital, and I went to visit her
4. We talked about a lot of different subject
5. We talked about the weather and we talked about our old friends
6. I asked a lot of questions
7. I spoke a little French
8. She wanted to know if I spoke French with an American accent and I said I did

Describing Objects

1. Yesterday was Jim’s birthday, He got a lot present from his friends and his family
2. All the gifts were wrapped in coloured paper
3. Some of the packages were large, but others were very small
4. One square package was blue, there was a book in it
5. Another one was long and narrow, it had an umbrella in it
6. Jim’s sister gave him a big round package
7. He thought it was a ball but it was not
8. When he removed the yellow paper that covered it, he saw that it was a globe of the world
9. After that his brother gave Jim another gift. It was a big box wrapped in green paper
10. He removed the paper and saw a third box
11. Everyone laughed as Jim opened the boxes
12. In the last one he found a small white envelope
13. There was a piece of paper in the envelope which said go to the big bedroom
14. Look in the closed near the high window
15. You will see three suitcases, a black one, a brown one, and a gray one
You birthday present is in one of these

Neither…Nor

1. Neither Toni nor the students are watching TV now
2. Neither my mother nor my friends sweep the floor
3. Yesterday, I neither slept nor ate
4. Neither Rina nor Toni are rid the bed
5. Neither Tommy nor Tina’s friends are going to visit Bali
6. Lat night party was neither interesting nor impressing
7. It is neither flesh nor fish
8. Rina is neither smart nor stupid
9. Neither Thomas nor his friends do not come to the party
10. Neither Riko nor Ahmat come to school late

Either…Or

1. Either the dog or the cats eat the fish
2. Either you or she is smart
3. Either Alex or his sisters has washed the dishes
4. She can speak either English or French
5. Ari can either speak or write English
6. Either Tiwi or Bobby didn’t go to the movie last night
7. Either you go or stay, but shut the door please
8. Either my mother or my sister is here
9. Either my friends or my mother sweeps the floor every morning
10. I will either play games or sing a song tomorrow

Both…and

1. Both my father and my mother are still alive
2. Both the teachers and the students are on holiday now
3. She can both speak and write Japanese
4. Both my sister and my brother play the piano
5. Reni enjoys both books and music
6. Both Tono and Toni clean the board
7. Both the students and the teacher are planning to come
8. Both wheat and corn are grown in Kansas
9. Both Roni and Bobi enjoy horseback riding
10. Both John and Joe go to work early

PENDIDIKAN ANTI KORUPSI, SEBUAH KOMEDI?

Rumongso, seorang guru SD Djarna’atul Ichwan di Solo menulis di Harian Kompas (24 Nov 2012) sebuah artikel dengan judul “Komedi Pendidikan”. Beliau menulis, “Lalu, pemerintah mewacanakan pendidikan antikorupsi di sekolah dan akan jadi mata kuliah wajib di perguruan tinggi. Ini juga komedi pendidikan.” Nah, wacana pendidikan anti korupsi dicanangkan pemerintah, dalam hal ini Kementerian Pendidikan, untuk memutuskan gurita korupsi yang begitu melilit bangsa dan negara Indonesia. Namun bagi seorang pendidik seperti Rumongso ini merupakan sebuah komedi yang tidak lucu. Beliau punya alasan untuk berpendapat demikian, karena sebagai seorang guru, layaknya para guru di mana pun berada, dia selalu mengajarkan sikap jujur kepada anak didiknya. Dari pendapat seperti itu dapat dikatakan bahwa virus korupsi itu tidak berinkubasi di dunia pendidikan yang sudah disterilkan. Korupsi adalah penyakit sosial yang virusnya punya habitat di tengah masyarakat. Karena itu untuk membasmi virus korupsi masyarakat harus didesinfentankan. Solusinya adalah penegakan hukum yang jelas dan tegas kepada para koruptor. Para koruptor diberi hukuman yang berat, dimiskinkan dan seluruh harta bendanya disita untuk negara.
Kalau benar sekolah atau lembaga pendidikan itu kebal terhadap virus korupsi, pertanyaan yang muncul adalah kenapa hasil didiknya begitu mudah tergiur oleh godaan si bidadari korupsi? Jelas, sekolah atau lembaga pendidikan tidak membekali hasil didiknya dengan imunitas atau ketahanan moral dan mental agar tahan banting terhadap aneka godaan yang menggiurkan dari si bidadari korupsi. “Mana tahan!”, kata orang. Banyak orang begitu mudah bertekuklutut di hadapan si bidadari korupsi, karena begitu rapuhnya ketahanan moral dan mentalnya. Mungkin di sekolah para guru mengajarkan sikap jujur dan mengajak anak didik untuk anti korupsi dengan seruan, “Katakan ‘tidak’ kepada korupsi!” Kenyataan, kata “tidak” itu hanya ucapan mulut dan samasekali tidak menggema di hati untuk membentuk hati nurani yang anti korupsi. Maka hal yang paling penting kalau mau mengikis korupsi adalah membangun hati nurani dan menempa ketahanan moral serta ketahanan mental. Di sini peran dan makna sebuah pendidikan anti korupsi.
Hal yang harus dicermati terlebih dahulu adalah membedakan pendidikan anti korupsi dan pelajaran anti korupsi. Menurut saya, hal terpenting yang harus dilakukan oleh sekolah atau lembaga pendidikan adalah pendidikan anti korupsi dan bukan pelajaran anti korupsi. Pendidikan anti korupsi sebetulnya adalah nama lain dari pembentukan hati nurani atau pembinaan ketahanan moral dan mental. Hal ini sebetulnya sudah mulai dilakukan di beberapa sekolah dengan “KIOS KEJUJURAN”. Kios kejujuran adalah tempat pelatihan dan pembinaan kejujuran. Seorang anak didik, bahkan sejak TK sudah dilatih untuk jujur yakni mengambil dan membayar barang yang diambil di Kios Kejujuran tanpa harus dikontrol. Hal lain yang bisa dilakukan, anak didik sejak kecil dilatih untuk mengakui secara jujur kesalahan dan menentukan sendiri sanksinya. Misalnya, di akhir pelajaran guru bertanya kepada anak-anak, “siapa yang hari ini membuang sampah tidak di tempat sampah yang disediakan?” Anak yang mengakui kesalahan secara jujur harus diberi peneguhan (enforcement) dan diminta untuk menentukan sendiri sanksinya. Masih banyak lagi bentuk pendidikan kejujuran yang bisa diterapkan di sekolah. Dengan demikian hati nurani anak ditempa untuk mendorong anak didik berperilaku jujur. Nah, kalau pendidikan kejujuran dan tanggungjawab itu sudah ditanamkan sejak kecil, kita berharap setelah menyelesaikan pendidikan di Perguruan Tinggi seseorang sudah memiliki hati nurani yang tegar, dan ketahanan moral serta mental yang tangguh.
Peserta didik yang sudah dibekali dengan hati nurani yang unggul dan ketahanan moral serta mental yang tangguh, ketika terjun ke tengah masyarakat dapat dilepoti kebusukan korupsi yang sudah mewabah. Potensi pembusukan tiap warga masyarakat (hasil didik) sebagai akibat sistem yang busuk, harus bisa diminimalisir dengan penegakan hukum yang tegas tanpa pandang bulu dan pemberian hukum yang berat bagi pelaku korupsi. Para penegak hukum, dalam hal ini lembaga yudikatif seperti kepolisian, kejaksaan dan kehakiman, harus menjadi pelopor integritas penegakan hukum. Hanya sapu yang bersih dapat membersihkan kotoran. Sapu yang kotor malah akan ikut menambah kotor lingkungan masyarakat. Para penegak hukum harus menjadi benteng terakhir untuk melindungi hati nurani, ketahanan moral dan mental masyarakat agar tidak jebol oleh arus korupsi. Namun kenyataan di lapangan sangat menyedihkan. Para penegak hukum yang diharapkan menjadi pendekar penegakan keadilan dan kebenaran, menjadi solusi atas masalah korupsi, ternyata ikut menjadi penyebab masalah korupsi. Ada oknum hakim, jaksa dan polisi yang justru terlibat kasus suap dan korupsi. Lembaga legislatif yang diharapkan dapat menjadi lembaga pengawas yang bisa mencegah bertambah parahnya korupsi, malah ikut kelepotan kasus korupsi. Anggota DPR dari tingkat pusat sampai daerah rame-rame jadi tersangka korupsi. Terjadi korupsi berjemaah. Inilah lingkaran setan yang membikin rumit masalah korupsi.
Dalam situasi bangsa dan negara seperti ini, muncul pertanyaan kritis, apakah masih ada harapan masalah korupsi dapat diatasi? Sudah pasti dosa korupsi tidak akan pernah terhapus dari muka bumi sampai akhir zaman. Namun dosa korupsi masih bisa dikurangi kalau ada kemauan dari semua orang dan komitmen dari pemerintah serta semua penegak hukum untuk sungguh-sungguh memberantas korupsi dengan keberanian menegakkan hukum, kebenaran dan keadilan. Selain itu koruptor harus dihukum seberat-beratnya dan seluruh kekayaan yang dimilikinya dirampas untuk negara agar dapat menimbulkan efek jerah bagi calon koruptor.
Ketika masyarakat bangsa Indonesia nyaris pesimis menghadapi wabah korupsi, lembaga pendidikan diharapkan dapat memancarkan secercah cahaya harapan lewat pendidikan kejujuran bagi anak didiknya. Dari sekian banyak orang yang terjerumus ke dalam kubangan korupsi, tetap masih ada orang jujur yang punya integritas. Tampilnya figur seperti Dahlan Iskan dan Jokowi sungguh membawa angin segar yang membuat asa tetap bernyala. Karena itu pendidikan kejujuran di setiap lembaga pendidikan merupakan suatu keniscayaan dan tidak boleh dianggap sebagai komedi yang tidak lucu. Kalau sejak TK sampai Perguruan Tinggi nilai kejujuran, tanggungjawab itu ditanam dan terus ditempa, bukan mustahil dapat menghasilkan warga bangsa Indonesia yang punya integritas dengan ketahanan moral serta ketahanan mental yang tangguh. Bukan mustahil akan lahir Dahlan Iskan dan Jokowi baru sebagai obor yang akan sedikit memancarkan cahaya di tengah kegelapan korupsi. Kata Santo Kristoforus, “Daripada mengutuki kegelapan, lebih baik menyalakan sebatang lilin.” Daripada rame-rame mengutuki kegelapan korupsi, mari nyalakan sebatang lilin kejujuran.
Meskipun lembaga pendidikan dapat memberikan kontribusi untuk meminimalisir merajalelanya wabah korupsi, namun tidak bisa diingkari bahwa lembaga pendidikan pun tidak steril dari virus korupsi. Kasus nyontek, jual beli soal, bocornya ujian negara dlsb cukup mencoreng wajah lembaga pendidikan. Catatan hitam ini harus menjadi perhatian utama dari semua penanggungjawab terhadap pendidikan generasi muda, mulai dari menteri pendidikan sampai ke seorang guru di Taman Kanak-Kanak untuk mempersempit peluang bagi orang untuk melakukan korupsi di lembaga pendidikan. Karena mungkin orang tidak berniat untuk melakukan korupsi, tetapi karena ada kesempatan atau peluang, orang tergoda untuk melakukannya. Karena itu di segala lini harus diusahakan untuk membatasi terciptanya peluang bagi orang untuk melakukan korupsi. Hal ini tentu menyangkut sistem yang berlaku di mana saja. Harus diciptakan sebuah sistem yang mengurangi bahkan menghilangkan cela bagi siapa pun untuk melakukan korupsi. Itulah korupsi sistemik yang harus dirombak dengan mengadakan reformasi sistem di segala bidang kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara di tanah air kita. Reformasi sistem sudah merupakan tuntutan yang tidak bisa tidak harus segera dilaksanakan demi terkikisnya korupsi dan peningkatan kesejahteraan seluruh masyarakat Indonesia.

PASAR MONOPOLI

PENGERTIAN PASAR MONOPOLI
Pasar monopoli (dari bahasa Yunani: monos, satu + polein, menjual) adalah suatu bentuk pasar di mana hanya terdapat satu penjual yang menguasai pasar. Penentu harga pada pasar ini adalah seorang penjual atau sering disebut sebagai "monopolis".
Sebagai penentu harga (price-maker), seorang monopolis dapat menaikan atau mengurangi harga dengan cara menentukan jumlah barang yang akan diproduksi; semakin sedikit barang yang diproduksi, semakin mahal harga barang tersebut, begitu pula sebaliknya. Walaupun demikian, penjual juga memiliki suatu keterbatasan dalam penetapan harga. Apabila penetapan harga terlalu mahal, maka orang akan menunda pembelian atau berusaha mencari atau membuat barang subtitusi (pengganti) produk tersebut atau - lebih buruk lagi - mencarinya di pasar gelap (black market).
CIRI DAN SIFAT PASAR MONOPOLI
Ada beberapa ciri dan sifat dasar pasar monopoli. Ciri utama pasar ini adalah adanya seorang penjual yang menguasai pasar dengan jumlah pembeli yang sangat banyak. Ciri lainnya adalah tidak terdapatnya barang pengganti yang memiliki persamaan dengan produk monopolis; dan adanya hambatan yang besar untuk dapat masuk ke dalam pasar.
Hambatan itu sendiri, secara langsung maupun tidak langsung, diciptakan oleh perusahaan yang mempunyai kemampuan untuk memonopoli pasar. Perusahaan monopolis akan berusaha menyulitkan pendatang baru yang ingin masuk ke pasar tersebut dengan beberapa cara; salah satu di antaranya adalah dengan cara menetapkan harga serendah mungkin.
Dengan menetapkan harga ke tingkat yang paling rendah, perusahaan monopoli menekan kehadiran perusahaan baru yang memiliki modal kecil. Perusahaan baru tersebut tidak akan mampu bersaing dengan perusahaan monopolis yang memiliki kekuatan pasar, image produk, dan harga murah, sehingga lama kelamaan perusahaan tersebut akan mati dengan sendirinya.
Cara lainnya adalah dengan menetapkan hak paten atau hak cipta dan hak eksklusif pada suatu barang, yang biasanya diperoleh melalui peraturan pemerintah. Tanpa kepemilikan hak paten, perusahaan lain tidak berhak menciptakan produk sejenis sehingga menjadikan perusahaan monopolis sebagai satu-satunya produsen di pasar.
FAKTOR-FAKTOR YANG MENIMBULKAN MONOPOLI
 Hambatan teknis (Technical Barriers to Entry)
Ketidakmampuan bersaing secara teknis menyebabkan perusahaan lain sulit bersaing dengan yang sudah ada (existing firm). Keunggulan secara teknis ini disebabkan oleh :
• Perusahan memiliki kemampuan atau pengetahuan khusus yang memungkinkan berproduksi sangat efisien;
• Tingginya tingkat efisiensi memungkinkan perusahaan monopolis mempunyai kurva biaya yang menurun. Makin besar skala produksi, biaya marjinal makin menurun, sehingga biaya produksi per unit makin rendah;
• Perusahaan memiliki kemampuan control sumber factor produksi, baik berupa SDA, SDM maupun lokasi produksi.

Perusahaan-perusahaan yang memiliki daya monopoli karena kemampuan teknis disebut perusahaan monopolis alamiah (natural monopolist).

 Hambatan legalitas (Legal Barriers to Entry)
• Undang-undang dan hak khusus
Tidak semua perusahaan memiliki daya monopoli karena kemampuan teknis. Hak khusus tidak hanya diberikan oleh pemerintah, tetapi juga oleh satu perusahaan kepada perusahaan lainnya
• Hak paten atau hak cipta
Hak paten atau hak cipta adalah monopoli berdasarkan hukum karena pengetahuan kemampuan khusus (special knowledge) yang menciptakan daya monopoli secara teknik.
Terdapat tiga faktor yang dapat menyebabkan wujudnya pasar (perusahaan) monopoli. Ketiga faktor tersebut adalah:

1. Perusahaan Monopoli Memiliki Suatu Sumber Daya yang Unik dan Tidak Dimiliki oleh Perusahaan Lain.
Salah satu sumber penting dari adanya monopoli adalah pemilikan suatau sumber daya yang unik (istimewa) yang tidak dimiliki oleh orang atau perusahaan lain. Perusahaan air minum di suatu kota adalah salah satu contoh lain dari kekuasaan monopoli yang memiliki sumber daya yang unik.

2. Perusahaan Monopoli pada Umumnya Dapat Menikmati Skala Ekonomi (Economies of Scale) hingga ke Tingkat Produksi yang Sangat Tinggi.
Di dalam abad ini perkembangan teknologi berlaku sangat pesat sekali. Di berbagai kegiatan ekonomi tingkat teknologi adalah sedemikian modernnya sehingga produksi yang efisien hanya dapat dilakukan apabila jumlah produksinya sangat besar dan meliputi hampir seluruh produksi yang diperlukan di dalam pasar.
Keadaan seperti ini berarti suatu perusahaan hanya akan menikmati skala ekonomi yang maksimum apabila tingkat produksinya adalah sangat besar jumlahnya.
Pada waktu perusahaan mencapai keadaan di mana biaya produksi mencapai keadaan di mana biaya produksi mencapai minimum, jumlah produksi adalah hampir menyamai jumlah permintaan yang wujud dalam pasar. Dengan demikian, sebagai akibat dari skala ekonomi yang demikian sifatnya, perusahaan dapat menurunkan harga barangnya apabila produksi semakin tinggi. Pada tingkat produksi yang sangat tinggi, harga adalah sedemikian rendahnya sehingga perusahaan-perusahaan baru tidak akan sanggup bersaing dengan perusahaan yang terlebih dahulu berkembang. Keadaan ini mewujudkan pasar monopoli.
Suatu industri yang skala ekonominya mempunyai sifat seperti yang diterangkan di atas adalah perusahaan yang dikatakan merupakan monopoli alamiah atau natural monopoly. Monopoli alamiah pada umumnya dijumpai dalam perusahaan jasa umum (utilities) seperti perusahaan listrik, perusahaan air minum, perusahaan telepon, dan prusahaan amgkutan kereta api.

3. Monopoli Wujud dan Berkembang Melalui Undang-undang yaitu Pemerintah Memberi Hak Monopoli Kepada Perusahaan Tersebut.

Di dalam undang-undang pemerintah yang mengatur kegiatan perusahaan-parusahaan terdapat beberapa peraturan yang akan mewujudkan kekuasaan monopoli. Peraturan-peraturan yang seperti itu adalah :

1. Peraturan paten dan hak cipta
Perkembangan ekonomi yang pesat terutama menimbulkan oleh perkembangan teknologi. Untuk mengembangkan teknologi kadang-kadang diperlukan waktu bertahun-tahun dan biaya yang sangat besar. Oleh sebab itu kegiatan dan pengeluaran untuk mengembangkan teknologi tidak akan dilakukan perusahaan apabila hasil jerih payah mereka dengan mudah dicontoh atau dijiplak oleh perusahaan lain.
Agar usaha mengembangkan teknologi dengan tujuan untuk menciptakan barang baru akan memberi keuntungan kepada perusahaan, haruslah pemerintah melarang dan menghukum kegiatan menjiplak tersebut. Hak cipta atau copy rights merupakan bentuk lain dari hak paten yaitu merupakan suatu jaminan hukum untuk menghindari penjiplakan.

2. Hak usaha eksklusif
Apabila skala ekonomi hanya diperoleh setelah perusahaan itu mencapai tingkat produksi sangat tinggi, kepentingan khalayak ramai akan dimaksimumkan apabila perusahaan diberi kesempatan untuk menikmati skala ekonomi itu, dan pada waktu yang sama diharuskan menjual produksinya dengan harga rendah. Untuk menciptakan keadaan seperti ini secara serentak pemerintah harus menjalankan dua langkah :
a. Memberikan hak monopoli kepada suatu perusahaan dalam suatu keadaan tertentu.
b. Menentukan harga atau tarif yang rendah ke atas barang atau jasa yang diproduksikan.

KEBIJAKAN PEMERINTAH DALAM MONOPOLI ALAMIAH
Arti monopoli secara alamiah adalah perusahaan yang terus menerus menikmati skala ekonomi hingga pada tingkat produksi yang sangat banyak jumlahnya, berarti AC terus menerus turun hingga ke tingkat produksi yang sangat tinggi.
Sebelum lebih jauh membahas mengenai monopoli alamiah, terlebih dahulu harus dikelompokkan macam-macam barang dalam perekonomian berdasarkan dua ciri (Mankiw, 2006:276) :
Apakah barangnya bersifat ekskludabel (excludable), yang artinya dapatkah masyarakat diminta untuk tidak memakai atau memanfaatkan barang tersebut?
Apakah barangnya bersifat persaingan (rival), yang artinya apakah jika seseorang memakai barang ini, maka peluang orang lain untuk memakainya berkurang?
Berdasarkan dua ciri tersebut, maka terdapat empat kategorisasi jenis barang dalam perekonomian (Mankiw, 2006: 277) :
1. Barang pribadi (private goods) adalah barang yang bersifat eksludabel dan rival. Hampir semua barang yang terdapat dalam pasar adalah barang pribadi, sebagai contoh adalah es krim. Es krim jelas bersifat eksludabel karena kita bisa mencegah orang lain mengonsumsinya, dan dia juga bersifat rival, karena jika hanya ada sebuah corong es krim, dan ada seseorang yang mengonsumsinya, maka orang lain tidak bisa mengonsumsinya.
2. Barang publik (public goods) adalah barang-barang yang tidak eksludabel juga tidak rival. Maksudnya adalah siapa saja tidak dapat dicegah untuk memanfaatkan barang ini, dan konsumsi seseorang atas barang ini tidak mengurangi peluang orang lain untuk melakukan hal yang sama. Contoh barang publik adalah pertahanan nasional. Jika suatu negara aman karena mampu melawan setiap serangan negara lain, maka siapa saja yang tinggal di dalam negara tersebut tidak bisa dicegah untuk turut menikmati rasa aman.
3. Sumber daya milik bersama (common resources) adalah barang yang tidak ekskludabel, namun rival. Contohnya adalah ikan di lautan. Tidak ada yang melarang seseorang menangkap ikan di laut, atau meminta bayaran kepada nelayan atas ikan-ikan yang mereka tangkap. Namun pada saat seseorang melakukannya, maka jumlah ikan di laut berkurang, sehingga kesempatan atau peluang orang lain melakukan hal yang sama jadi berkurang.
4. Yang terakhir adalah barang yang muncul dalam situasi monopoli alamiah, dimana dia bersifat eksludabel, namun tidak memiliki rival. Contoh paling mudah adalah jalan tol dalam kondisi yang kosong. Dengan berbagai macam alasan, misalnya adanya perbaikan secara massif, seseorang bisa saja dicegah untuk memasuki jalan tol meski ia berada dalam kondisi yang kosong. Namun dia tidaklah bersifat rival, karena ketika seseorang masuk ke dalam jalan tol yang kosong, dan dia tidak ada satupun aturan yang mencegah setiap orang untuk masuk ke dalamnya, maka karena keadaan tersebut atau karena skala ekonomi (economies of scale) yang ia nikmati, maka orang tersebut menikmati kondisi monopoli alamiah.

PASAR BEBAS
PENGERTIAN PASAR BEBAS
Perdagangan bebas adalah sebuah konsep ekonomi yang mengacu penjualan produk antar negara tanpa pajak ekspor-impor atau hambatan perdagangan lainnya.
Perdagangan bebas dapat juga didefinisikan sebagai tidak adanya hambatan buatan (hambatan yang diterapkan pemerintah) dalam perdagangan antar individual-individual dan perusahaan-perusahaan yang berada di negara yang berbeda.
Dalam pasar bebas yang ada hanyalah persaingan, pasar bebas merupakan pasar dimana harga barang dan jasa disusun secara lengkap oleh ketidak saling memaksa yang disetujui para penjual dan pembeli, ditetapkan umumnya oleh hukum penawaran dan permintaan dengan tanpa campur tangan pemerintah dalam regulasi harga, penawaran dan permintaan. Dalam etika pasar islami, ekuiblirium sebagai titik pertemuan persamaan hak antara pembeli dan penjual. Hak pembeli untuk mendapatkan barang dan hak penjual untuk mendapatkan uang yang sepantasnya dari barang yang dijualnya. Dalam konteks hak ini, kewajiban-kewajiban masing-masing pihak harus terpenuhi terlebih dahulu, kewajiban penjual untuk membuat produk berkualitas dan bermanfaat dan bagi pembeli untuk membayar uang tang sepantasnya sebagai pangganti harga barang yang diperoleh.

SISTEM PEREKONOMIAN PASAR BEBAS ATAU LAISSEZ-FAIRE
Dalam teori ekonoi dan dalam keadaan yang sebenarnya sistem pasar bebas atau laissez-faire merupaka sistem ekonomi yang paling ideal. Oleh sebab itu pada masa ini semaki banyak negara yang melaksanakan sistem ini dengan sebaik-baiknya. Uraian berikut menerangkan ciri asa sistem itu, dan bagaimana sistem ini mengatasi masalah-masalah pokok dalam masalah perekonomian.
Kata laissez faire sendiri berasal dari bahasa perancis yang artinya “biarkan mereka melakukan pekerjaan yang sesuai dengan keinginan mereka”.maka pada hakekatnya dalam sistem laissez-faire anggota masyarakat diberikan kebebasan yang sepenuh-penuhnya untuk menentukan kegiatan ekonomi yang ingin mereka lakukan. Fisafat atau ideologi yang menjadi landasan kepada sistem ekonomi seperti itu adalah keyakinan bahwa apabila setiap unit pelaku kegiatan ekonomi diberi kebebasan untuk melakuan kegiatan-kegiatanyang akan memberikan keuntungan kepada dirinya,maka pada waktu yang sama masyarakat akan memperoleh keuntungan juga.
CIRI-CIRI PASAR BEBAS
Ciri-ciri sistem ekonomi pasar bebas adalah sebagai berikut:
a. Alat dan sumber produksi dapat dimiliki dan diatur oleh perseorangan, masyarakat, atau perusahaan.
b. Terdapat pembagian kelas dalam masyarakat, yaitu kelas pekerja atau buruh dan kelas pemilik modal.
c. Terjadi persaingan diantara para pengusaha untuk memperoleh laba atau keuntungan sebesar-besarnya (profit motive).
d. Pemerintah tidak melakukan campur tangan dalam pasar. Campur tangan negara dibatasi hanya pada hal-hal yang tidak dapat diusahakan oleh swasta tetapi menjadi syarat terselenggaranya pasar bebas, misalnya keamanan negara.

Kelebihan sistem ekonomi pasar bebas adalah sebagai berikut:
a. Setiap individu bebas memiliki kekayaan dan sumber daya produksi.
b. Inisiatif dan kreatifitas masyarakat dapat dikembangkan.
c. Terjadi persaingan antar produsen untuk menghasilkan barang yang bermutu.
d. Efisiensi dan efektifitas tinggi karena tindakannya selalu didasarkan pada prinsip ekonomi.

Kelemahan sistem ekonomi pasar bebas adalah sebagai berikut:
a. Adanya eksploitasi terhadap masyarakat ekonomi lemah oleh pihak yang kuat ekonominya.
b. Menimbulkan terjadinya monopoli sehingga merugikan masyarakat.
c. Munculnya kesenjangan ekonomi antara golongan ekonomi kuat dengan golongan ekonomi lemah.
d. Perekonomian dapat dengan mudah menjadi tidak stabil.

PROMOSI RUMAH SAKIT YANG BERETIKA

Promosi merupakan salah satu bentuk pemasaran produk atau jasa, sehingga perlu dilakukan oleh setiap institusi termasuk rumah sakit. Dalam melakukan promosi, rumah sakit harus memenuhi beberapa aturan baku agar tidak saling menjatuhkan antara satu rumah sakit dengan rumah sakit lainnya, sesuai dengan Kode etik rumah sakit seluruh Indonesia (KODERSI) 2001 Bab VI, pasal 23 yang mengharuskan rumah sakit dalam melakukan promosi pemasaran harus bersifat informatif, tidak komparatif, berpijak pada dasar yang nyata dan tidak berlebihan. Oleh karena itu, promosi rumah sakit harus jujur, bertanggung jawab dan tidak bertentangan dengan hukum yang berlaku. Promosi rumah sakit tidak boleh menyinggung perasaan dan merendahkan martabat negara, agama, tata susila, adat, budaya, suku dan golongan, dijiwai oleh azas persaingan yang sehat, dan harus tetap memiliki tanggung jawab sosial, dengan ketentan bahwa :
• Layanan yang ditawarkan harus professional dan berkualitas. Setiap institusi layanan kesehatan harus selalu mengacu pada etika profesi dan etika rumah sakit, serta bekerja sesuai dengan pedoman dan standar layanan yang ada.
• Tarif layanan wajar dan dapat dipertanggungjawabkan serta memperhatikan ketentuan yang ada.
• Layanan yang ditawarkan harus merata dan ditujukan kepada seluruh anggota masyarakat.
• Layanan yang ditawarkan harus mampu memberikan rasa aman dan nyaman bagi pengguna layanan.
Di samping itu promosi layanan rumah sakit adalah fundamental yang mengacu kepada :
• Falsafah promosi : setiap rumah sakit harus mengacu pada koridor kompetisi yang sehat.
• Misi promosi : tidak hanya ditujukan untuk meningkatkan pengguna jasa (yang sekaligus akan meningkatkan pendapatan), tetapi juga harus sejalan dengan manfaat sosialnya.
• Sistem promosi : dalam promosi rumah sakit bukan hanya menjual, tetapi sekaligus akan meningkatkan pengetahuan anggota masyarakat untuk memilih bentuk layanan kesehatan yang paling tepat bagi dirinya.
Secara umum promosi rumah sakit harus bersifat :
• Informatif : memberikan pengetahuan mengenai hal ikhwal yang ada relevansinya dengan berbagai layanan dan program rumah sakit yang efektif bagi konsumen / pasien.
• Eukatif : memperluas cakrawala khalayak ramai tentang berbagai fungsi dan program rumah sakit serta penyelenggarannya.
• Perspektif : memberikan petunjuk-petunjuk kepada khalayak ramai pada umumnya dan pasien khususnya tentang layanan yang dilakukan serta proses diagnosis dan terapinya.
• Preparatif : membantu pasien atau keluarga pasien dalam proses pengambilan keputusan.
Agar suatu rumah sakit dapat dipercaya dan diminati oleh masyarakat, maka dalam melakukan promosi harus tidak menyesatkan, dengan tidak memberikan keterangan yang tidak benar, mengelabuhi dan memberikan janji yang berlebihan, tidak menyalahgunakan kepercayaan yang dapat merugikan masyarakat. Oleh karena itu dalam memasang iklan harus tidak menjanjikan suatu layanan yang memang tidak bisa dilakukan oleh rumah sakit tersebut, dengan mematuhi semua undang-undang dan peraturan yang berlaku, sehingga isi promosi akan mengandung kebenaran atas pernyataan atau janji mengenai suatu produk yang ditawari.
Dengan demikian maka promosi layanan rumah sakit harus tidak menyinggung perasaan, berselera baik dan pantas, menggunakan bahasa yang baik dengan istilah yang tepat, tidak boleh merendahkan dan / atau mencemooh agama/kepercayaan tertentu, tidak melanggar norma-norma tata susila, adat dan budaya bangsa, tidak boleh menyinggung/mempertentangkan suku/golongan, tidak boleh menggunakan lambang-lambang kenegaraan, monument, maupun pahlawan.
Perlu diketahui juga bahwa asas khusus promosi rumah sakit harus memenuhi beberapa kriteria antara lain :
• Mencerminkan jati diri rumah sakit sebagai institusi yang memiliki tanggung jawab social
• Penampilan tenaga profesi (dokter, ahli farmasi, tenaga paramedic dan atribut profesi lain) tidak boleh dipergunakan untuk mengiklankan jasa pelayanan rumah sakit.
• Menghargai hak-hak pasien sebagai pelanggan.
Media promosi dapat menggunakan beberapa sarana antara lain : brosur/leaflet, buku saku, TV/home video, majalah dinding, CCTV, CD, spanduk, umbul-umbul, seminar untuk awam, ceramah/pertemuan, poster, audiovisual, majalah rumah sakit, pemeran, gathering pasien, kemasan produk (misalnya : paket melahirkan mendapat tas dan perlengkapan bayi) dsb.
Di dalam brosur/iklan hanya boleh mencantumkan : letak rumah sakit, jenis dan kapasitas rumah sakit, kemudahan yang dapat diperoleh atas pelayanan rumah sakit, fasilitas pelayanan yang dimiliki (sarana pendukung/penunjang), kualitas dan mutu layanan yang telah dicapai (lulus akreditasi, sertifikat ISO, penghargaan lain).
Dengan demikian promosi yang dilakukan oleh rumah sakit ini, beretika dan tidak melanggar Undang-Undang No. 8 Tahun 1999 tentang Perlindungan Konsumen dan KODERSI 2001.